The growth of small scale businesses free essay sample

The dynamic role of small scale business in developing countries has long been recognized (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). These small scale businesses can serve as engines through which the economic growth and employment objectives of developing countries can be achieved. However, for many years these rural enterprises have failed to grow beyond their micro enterprise nature and sometimes at best their small or medium size (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). It is believed that private small scale businesses have significant and positive contribution to the growth and development of business sectors in the Ghanaian economy. Small scale businesses sometimes called small enterprises, a small scale enterprise is a business that employs a small number of workers and does not have a high volume of sales. Such enterprises are generally privately owned and operated sole proprietorships, corporations or partnerships. The legal definition of a small-scale enterprise varies by industry and country. This policy paper is based on a study carried out to determine the growth of small scale enterprises, which plays a critical role in entrepreneurship development. We will write a custom essay sample on The growth of small scale businesses or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page While large enterprises employ many individuals, small-scale enterprises employ few or no employee, in Ghana small scale businesses account for nearly half of the gross domestic product. Small-scale enterprises help stimulate local economies by providing local individuals with jobs, as well as products and services to community members. Moreover, such enterprises help diversify and grow their respective industries, as many women and minorities make significant contributions to the small business world. When there is a rise in small scale enterprises, countries may see reforms in basic rights. Small scale enterprises exist in almost every industry. They can range from mom and pop convenience stores to small manufacturing plants. Additional types of small-scale enterprises can include privately owned restaurants, law firms, inns, bakeries, architectural and engineering firms, dry cleaners and construction contractors. Despite the large contribution of small scale businesses in countries development and economic growth, their growth and development in developing countries were mainly inhibited by access of finance, poor managerial skills, and lack of training opportunities and high cost of inputs ‘Cook and Nixson, 2 (2000)’. Further studies conducted suggest that finance is the most important constraint for the small scale businesses (Green, kimuyu, Manus and Murinde, 2002). The small scale businesses have very limited access to financial services from formal financial institutions to meet their working and investment needs However, the generation of self-employment in the small enterprises requires investment in working capital, at low levels of income, the accumulation of such capital may be difficult. Under such circumstances, loans can help the poor to accumulate capital and investment in employment generating activities â€Å"Hossain (1988)†. According to Grade (1984), loans enable the individual’s member or enterprises to enjoy the benefit of economies of scale and new technology. Availability of credit to small business and low income households could greatly enhance their economic strength and eventually break the vicious circle of low income, low saving, low investment and low income. Most Small scale businesses provide subsistence living and they keep in the vicious circle of not being able to grow because the small profits they make are easily wiped out by family needs like school fees, sickness, introduction and wedding ceremonies. There is, therefore, the need to transform micro enterprises activities into small and medium enterprises so that they can grow and provide jobs for others. Technology has an important role to play in transforming small scale business activities. In order to acquire technology, the small scale businesses usually need to get credit. However, their access to this from banks is limited because of lack of collateral. Their main source would therefore be from micro finance institution (MFI) schemes which have flexible collateral policies. The main objective of this study is to assess the contributions of small scale businesses by micro finance institutions and the indicators used to measure growth, considering their management skills such as a. planning b. communication c. human resource management, d. their entrepreneurial innovations, e. the business strategic plans and issues of trust and challenges needs to  be examined. This topic seems very interesting in divers’ ways which provides various alternatives in transacting business such as; first, the study will contribute to the body of knowledge on the contributions towards the growth of small scale businesses, taking into consideration the true cost incurred, apart from interest cost. Second, this study is intended to shed light on the relationship between microfinance services and the growth of small scale businesses, particularly with the focus on their livelihoods for both planners and policy makers in government, agencies and NGOs. This will help them to come out with substantive possible alternative policy interventions which might help to address problems and challenges which small scale businesses face. Third, this study will reveal the impact of microfinance services on the growth of small scale businesses for use in short term and long term interventions especially in the fight against poverty. In order to better understand the conditions that indicate when a small scale business is growing or ready to grow additional indicators concerning the business plans, communication, human resources management and issues of trust needs to be examined. A study of this nature is equally very important because it is going to enlighten the government and the public on the role of micro finance and its contributions towards the growth of small scale business sector. Definitions The SSB nomenclature is used to mean small scale business. It is sometimes referred to as small and micro enterprises (SMEs). The SSBs cover non-farm economic activities mainly manufacturing, commerce and services such as the small scale mining URT (2003). According to kessy and Urio (2006), SSBs can be defined as a productive activity either to produce or distribute goods and or services, mostly undertaken in the informal sector. The Tanzanian government defines SMEs according to sector, employment size, and capital investment in machinery. A micro enterprise is one with fewer than five employees, a small enterprise with 5-49 employees, a medium enterprise with 50-99 employees and a large enterprise with more than 100 employees. As Storey (1994) stated, there are three key distinguishing features between large and small businesses. Firstly, the greater external uncertainty of the environment in which the small business operates and the greater internal consistency of its motivations and actions. Secondly, they have a different role in innovation, small businesses are able to produce something marginally different, in terms of product or service; this differs from the standardized product or service provided by large businesses. A third area of distinction between small and large business is the greater likelihood of evolution and change in the smaller firm, small firms which become large undergo a number of stage changes. Small scale rural and urban businesses have been one of the major areas of concern to many policy makers in an attempt to accelerate the rate of growth in low income countries. These enterprises have been recognized as the engines through which the growth objectives of developing countries can be achieved. They are potential sources of employment and income breeders in many developing countries. It is argued that increases in employment Small and Medium Business is not always associated with increases in productivity. Nevertheless, the important role performed by these enterprises cannot be overlooked. Small firms have advantages over their large scale competitors. They are able to adapt more easily to market conditions given their broadly skilled technologies. However, narrowing the analysis down to developing countries raises the following puzzle: Do small scale business have a dynamic economic role? Due to their flexible nature, SSBs are able to withstand adverse economic conditions. They are more labour intensive than larger firms and therefore, have lower capital costs associated with job creation. SSEs perform useful roles in ensuring income stability, growth and employment. Since SSBs are labour intensive, they are more likely to succeed in smaller urban centers and rural areas, where they can contribute to the more even distribution of economic activity in a society and can help to slow the flow of migration to large cities. Because of their regional dispersion and their labour intensity, the argument goes; small scale production units can promote a more equitable distribution of income than large firms. They also improve the efficiency of domestic markets and make productive use of scarce resources, thus, facilitating long term economic growth. Constraints: Despite the wide ranging economic reforms instituted, SMEs face a variety of constraints owing to the difficulty of absorbing large fixed costs, the absence of economies of scale and scope in key factors of production and the higher unit costs of providing services to other firms. Most of these SMEs do not survive their second birthday because of certain constraints. These constraints include lack of capital, human resource challenges, market-based challenges, unfavorable legal, regulatory conditions and weak institutional regimes (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). However, the URT MSEs policy recognizes that SSBs are confronted with unique problems including heavy costs of compliance resulting from their size. Other constraints include insufficient working premises and limited access to finance, Business Development Services, namely services related to entrepreneurship, business training, marketing, technology development and information are undeveloped and not readily available. SMEs lack information as well as appreciation from such services and can hardly afford to pay the services. As the result, operators of the sector have rather low skills. Institutions and associations supporting SMEs are weak, fragmented and uncoordinated partly due to lack of clear guidance and policy for the development of the sector (URT, 2003). Access to finance remained a dominant constraint to small scale enterprises in developing countries. (Aryeetey, Baah, Duggleby. 1994) reported that 38% of the SSBs surveyed mention credit as a constraint, in the case at Malawi. This stems from the fact that SMEs have limited access to capital markets, locally and internationally, in part because of the perception of higher risk, informational barriers, and the higher costs of intermediation for smaller firms. As a result, SMEs often cannot obtain long-term finance in the form of debt and equity. Financial problem of most MSEs arise due to poor financial management; existence of information irregularity and bank credit rationing. Ogawa and Suzuki (2000) pointed out that bank do not want to offer loans to MSEs because the nature of loans required is too small and those banks find it more expensive to offer such loans. Commercials banks, which were traditionally looked upon as powerful catalyst of economic development through mobilization and the provision of credit to profitable ventures do not offer credit to the rural poor or small business. Stringent lending policies and collateral requirements, cumbersome procedures and their perception of small business and the rural poor as risky, often leads to exclusion Indicators and contributions of growth: There is different range of indicators of growth of SMEs. This study will use income of the SSBs, Accumulation of business assets, revenue and employment through MFI as indicator of growth for the enterprises and also indicators such as innovation, communication, planning, human resource management and business trust. Therefore in recognizing the contribution of SSBs in countries, the Microfinance Policy which aims at enabling low income earners to access financial services was developed. Microfinance institutions (MFI’s) provide a broad range of services including deposits, loans, payment services, money transfer and insurance to the poor or low-income households and their enterprises. The introduction of MFI’s is seen as the best alternative source of financial services for low income earners and their MSEs as a means to raise their income, hence reducing their poverty level and contributing in country economy (Kessy and Urio, 2006). Along this line the service of microfinance institution to majority who are low income earners have given them a number of possibilities including managing scarce household and enterprises resources more efficiently, protection against financial risks by taking advantages of investment opportunities and gaining economic returns. Micro finance enables clients to keep, expand and increase their incomes, as well as to accrue assets, reducing their weakness to income and expenditure shocks. By definition micro finance is described as the provision of appropriate financial services to significant numbers of low income, economically active people with an end objective to alleviate poverty. Micro Finance is recognized as an effective tool to fight poverty by providing financial services to those who do not have access to or are neglected by the commercial banks and financial institutions. Financial services provided by the Micro Finance Institutions (MFIs) may include one or any combination of savings, credit, insurance, pension or retirement and payment services. Microfinance is also frequently combined with the provision of social and business development services, such as literacy training, education on health issues, management or accounting. The main features of a microfinance institution which differentiate it from other commercial institutions, are such that, it is a substitute for formal credit, generally requires no collateral, have simple procedures and less documentation, easy and flexible repayment schemes, financial assistance of members of group in case of emergency, most deprived segments of population are efficiently targeted and last but not least, is groups interaction. According to Mosley (1999), microfinance makes a considerable contribution to the reduction of poverty through its impact on income and also has a positive impact on asset level. But the mechanism through which poverty reduction works varies between institutions. Generally, institutions that give, on average, smaller loans reduce poverty much more by lifting borrowers above the poverty line, whilst institutions giving larger loans reduce it much more by expanding the demand for labour amongst poor people. MFI services have impact not only on the SMEs growth but also on the owners and community at large, therefore the conceptual framework developed reflect the outcome of SSBs growth at household level this is due to the assumption that increase on growth of result into an increase of SSBs owner’s wealth and overall standard of living since the profit obtain from SMEs activities enable the SMEs owners to meet his/her living expenditure, hence create a possibility of trickledown effect. Nichols (2004) used a case study approach to investigate the impact of microfinance upon the lives of the poor in the rural China and found that the participation of poor in MFI program had led to positive impact in their life. Their income have increased, spending on educational and health have increased hence improved their standard of living and also women have benefited out of this program. There were visible sign of higher wealth level within the village. Also to assess the direct and indirect cost that SMEs incur when accessing the microfinance service, Chijoriga and Cassimon (1999) poited out that transaction costs comprises cost involved in finding a lender, mismatch costs and risk premium, all these transactions increase the gross cost of credit for the borrower. High transaction cost limit SSBs effective utilization of the services received, hence limit SSBs and household growth. Transaction cost approach to the theory of the firm was created by Ronald Coase (1937) in his article The Problem of Social Cost In order to carry out a market transaction it is necessary to discover who it is that one wishes to deal with, to conduct negotiations leading up to a bargain, to draw up the contract, to undertake the inspection needed to make sure that the terms of the contract are being observed. More succinctly transaction costs are search and information costs, bargaining and decision costs, and policing and enforcement costs The growing rate of unemployment poses a challenge not only to individuals but also to the government. At the individual level, the establishment of business enterprises particularly SMEs has been a resort to gainful employment. In order for SSBs to overcome the several constraints that they face and grow into large corporate entities; they must also be very innovative. Innovation is referred to as the use of improved products, processes, services, technologies or ideas accepted by markets, governments, and society (Christensen, 2002). Innovation is not the same as invention. Innovation refers to the use of a new ideas or methods, whereas invention refers more directly to the creation of the idea or method itself (Davila, Epstein and Shelton. 2006). SSBs need not create a new method but adopting the new methods to make it beneficial to their specific operations. Innovation has been identified as a driver of organizations and nations (Schumpeter, 1911) as it leads to entrepreneurship and hence economic prosperity. Essentially, innovation is holistic. It covers a range of issues necessary to provide value to customers and a good return to the organization. Buckler (1997) defines innovation as â€Å"an environment, a culture, almost spiritual force, that exists in a company† that drives value creation. Innovation cannot be touched, heard, tasted or seen but it can be felt within an organization. It is possibly best described as an all surrounding attitude that allows businesses to see beyond the present and create the future. During professionalization, management systems focusing on planning organization, development and control are developed (Flamholtz, 1990). The formation place an emphasis on organizational planning which may include the number of employees in the business. Planning is one of the most important functions of managers or sole proprietors. Instead of hopping for the best and making corrective changes each time difficulties are experienced, all aspect of production, selling and other activities of small scale businesses are determined ahead so that unforeseen circumstances are reduced to minimum. Planning in this context involves determining the direction of the business by establishing objectives and by designing and implementing strategies necessary to achieve the objectives of small scale businesses. While formal planning may not be  prevalent in small scale businesses, evidence was found that in order to successfully expand the workforce of small scale businesses, planning for growth must be carefully done. Also another indicator of interest as small scale businesses grows or expand their workforce is the importance of communication. Communication with customers, suppliers, competitors and the workforce should be focused at ensuring their understanding towards the alignment of the goals of the business. Effective communication is an intrinsic form of motivation. A clear, simple and timely transmission of information secures and maintains the interest of both internal and external factors of the business. Consistent with these findings, (Howard 2001) found that communication of the business plans through meetings demonstrated a positive, significant correlation with growth of business profit. Trust is an issue that has not been widely studied in relation to growth in small scale businesses. However, trust has been found to have a significant, positive correlation with business profits (Howard, 2001). Small scale business owners and managers in small businesses need to be able to trust their suppliers, customers and employees. If they do not develop some level of trust in their employees they may find themselves attempting to complete task jobs themselves. This can lead to an underutilization of employees, as well as contributing to the burnout of small scale business owners and managers. While not widely studied, since trust has demonstrated a significant relationship with organizational profit, it should be more closely examined to determine it relationship on the growth of small scale business. Lastly, as small scale businesses expand its workforce, it is reasonable to expect that the organization will experience some problems of a human resource management nature. This could be the reason that small scale businesses formalize their human resource policies and record keeping as they grow, since many small scale businesses do not have an employee dedicated to human resource management issues, as their owners may be addressing human resource management issues’ on their own as needed. In an exploratory study by Howard (2001), a wide variety of human resource problems were identified by owners and employees of small scale businesses. Most notably, staffing problems and appropriate salaries were noted. While many other problems were identified, staffing and compensation are functional areas of human resource management that will influence successful growth of small scale businesses. In conclusion, Based on a critical analysis and discussion by the group, it was evidence that, SSBs play an important role in the social economic development of the country. The sector contributes towards economic growth, employment creation, poverty reduction and development of an industrial base. They are important for raising efficiency of a country owing to their flexibility and low production costs. They act as breeding grounds for entrepreneurship innovation and invention hence a pool for employment. MSEs must therefore be nurtured to grow beyond social level. Based on the analysis of this paper, it was found that MFIs play a major role in credit provision to the MSEs, and this credit has contributed a major part in the growth of the business in terms of asset base, level of stocks, services and the number of employees the business can sustain. It also indicated that the credit services in businesses which do not show increased profitability, changes in stock levels and services are used to sustain the business and avoid possible collapse. Some suggestions and recommendations from this study is that the policy makers should address the main problems that medium and small enterprises encounter in accessing credit, by creating an enabling policy environment through simplifying and harmonizing licensing requirements, reduction of taxes and enhance access to relevant information through seminars and workshops. The government through the central bank should develop appropriate standards which recognize the special nature of micro finance institutions and strengthen them through integrating their operations in the main stream banking sector. The central bank should also make it a requirement for banks to have a separate micro finance credit line of service to take care of the needs of the SSBs. Empirical evidence shows that dynamic and growing small scale businesses can contribute to the achievement of a wide range of development objectives, including: the attainment of income distribution and poverty reduction, creation of employment, savings mobilization and production of goods and services that meet the basic needs of the poor. A major barrier to rapid development of the small scale enterprises is a shortage to both debt and equity financing. Accessing finance has been identified as a key element for small scale enterprises to succeed in their drive to build productive  capacity, to compete, to create jobs and contribute to poverty alleviation in developing countries. Small scale enterprises as a risk because of poor guarantees and lack of information about their ability to repay loans without finance, small scale enterprises cannot acquire or absorb new technologies. Although the banking sector is the largest and most important source of external financing for small scale enterprises, by and large, it is believed to be under serving the needs of this sector. Small scale enterprises alternatively draw financing from a variety of sources. Small firms rely proportionally more on MFIs and the informal sector (money lender) as a result of their inability to produce the collateral needed by the commercial banks. The various challenges faced by small scale enterprises can be solved through the effective utilization of the terms and policies of the MFIs. Also planning as the best indicator for small scale businesses to direct and forecast their activities successfully.

The 1969 Redstockings Abortion Speakout Protest

The 1969 Redstockings Abortion Speakout Protest In 1969, the members of radical feminist group Redstockings were furious that legislative hearings about abortion featured male speakers discussing such a crucial womens issue. They, therefore, staged their hearing, the Redstockings abortion speak-out, in New York City on March 21, 1969. The Fight to Make Abortion Legal The abortion speak-out took place during the pre-Roe v. Wade era when abortion was illegal in the United States. Each state had its own laws about reproductive matters. It was rare if not unheard of to hear any woman speak publicly about her experience with illegal abortion. Before the radical feminists fight, the movement to change U.S. abortion laws was more focused on reforming existing laws than repealing them. Legislative hearings on the issue featured medical experts and others who wanted to finesse the exceptions to abortion prohibitions. These experts talked about cases of rape and incest or a threat to the life or health of a mother. Feminists shifted the debate to a discussion of a womans right to choose what to do with her own body. Disruption In February of 1969, Redstockings members disrupted a New York legislative hearing about abortion. The New York Joint Legislature Committee on the Problems of Public Health had called the hearing to consider reforms to the New York law, then 86 years old, on abortion. They roundly condemned the hearing because the experts were a dozen men and a Catholic nun. Of all women to speak, they thought a nun would be the least likely to have contended with the abortion issue, other than from her possible religious bias. The Redstockings members shouted and called for the legislators to hear from women who had had abortions, instead. Eventually, that hearing had to be moved to another room behind closed doors. Who Gets to Speak The members of Redstockings had previously participated in consciousness-raising discussions. They had also drawn attention to womens issues with protests and demonstrations. Several hundred people attended their abortion speak-out in the West Village on March 21, 1969. Some women spoke about what they suffered during illegal â€Å"back-alley abortions.† Other women spoke about being unable to get an abortion and having to carry a baby to term, then have the child taken away when it was adopted. After the Demonstration More abortion speak-outs followed in other U.S. cities, as well as speak-outs on other issues in the subsequent decade. Four years after the 1969 abortion speak-out, the Roe v. Wade decision altered the landscape by repealing most abortion laws then in effect and striking down restrictions on abortion during the first trimester of pregnancy. Susan Brownmiller attended the original 1969 abortion speak-out.  Brownmiller then wrote about the event in an article for the  Village Voice, Everywomans Abortions: The Oppressor  Is Man. The original Redstockings collective broke up in 1970, though other groups with that name continued to work on feminist issues. On March 3, 1989, another abortion speakout was held in New York City on the 20th anniversary of the first.  Florynce Kennedy attended, saying I crawled off my death bed to come down here as she called for the struggle to continue.

Governmental Fragmental Versus Consolidation Article

Governmental Fragmental Versus Consolidation - Article Example For a very long time, arguments on how to organize and analyse urban governments that are in the US has been structured to fit around two basic perspectives of theories. One of these theoretical perspectives that has been advanced by the civic reform traditions gives greater emphasis on the socioeconomic interdependencies that is found in urban centres in America. As it emphasizes on the socio-economic interdependence of urban area, it also laments on the fragmentation of the government systems that have been designed to serve them. In trying to combine managerial and critical race theory paradigm, a method can be drafted to structure consolidated governments to handle different preferences of the citizens about the packages of tax service. Besides that a legal institutional created to measures and help in solving some of the alleged negative impacts of creating a larger units of local government authorities. Putting more emphasis on the larger representation as the opposed establish ment of the districts will provide a better way of involving citizens in important decision-making processes. Besides that, it will offer a formal mechanism in which hearing and handling of the grievances among the citizens can be done. Therefore, those citizens who are living in consolidated are less efficacious about their ruling government than those people living in highly fragmented systems. This proposition results into frustration and cynicism on the part of those local citizens who may not find a point of access.

Analysis and Valuation of General Dynamics Essay

Analysis and Valuation of General Dynamics - Essay Example The total sales revenue was USD 30, 852. General Dynamics Corporation conducts business with worldwide government customers like governments of Australia, The United Kingdom, Switzerland, Spain, Mexico and Canada. There is a long term commitment to enhance customer relationships with regional suppliers and employers in the identified governments. The commercial business segment of the corporation entails export of business-jet aircrafts and global aircraft services. In recent years, there is significant expansion of business-jet aircraft services. Expansion of market segments is also seen in emerging markets (PRAHALAD, 2008). There is growing segment of aircraft business in the international markets. The international market segment grew by 60% in the year 2014. The company competes with both small and large companies which are specialized in capability or technology. Combat systems compete with a number of foreign and domestic companies. There is one primary competitor of Marine systems called Hurtington Ingallas Industries. The company was formerly known as Northrop Grumman Shipbuilding. The company subcontracts and partners in many programs such as SSN 774 Virginia Class Submarines. The company is involved in subcontracting and teaming relationship with the competitors. It team works, the company acts as an integrator who oversees efforts of all team members in the contract. The General Dynamics main competitors in defense market include Boeing, BAE Systems, Raytheon, Ingallas Industries, Northrop Grumman, and Lockheed Martin. The key competitors in the aircraft range include Gulfstream Competitors, Cessna, Dassault and Embraer (DAMODARAN, 2013). The main competitive factors in the aircraft market business include reliability of aircraft, performance, and aircraft safety, comfort of aircraft, in-flight productivity, timeliness, service quality, and offer of competitive prices. Aspects such as new product

Supply Chain Management Case Study: Turkish Airline

Supply Chain Management Case Study: Turkish Airline At present, many companies are usually seeing their profits and income slip through their fingers as result of the of process gaps existing in various departments. As clienteles, staffs, partners or dealers move through a companys business processes, new publically conscious tools can inhibit them from getting stuck in multifaceted processes. Therefore, there is a need for synchronizing and integrating various processes which include; operation process, market process, production and procurement process. If not, a lack of synchronization and integration of various business processes can deny many of the vital benefits resulting from employing commercial process management and business instructions management or any other solutions that guarantee operational competence and efficiency. Before looking at how Turkish airline can Synchronize and integrate operation process, market process, production and procurement process, there is a need for defining what is meant by each of the processes; Marketing process This is the marketing model that any company must find a way to realizeunsatisfiedconsumer needs and bring to market goods and services that fulfill those desires. The procedure of doing so can be exhibited in a series of steps that ensure unsatisfied consumers fulfill their desires. Operational processes These are the processes that ensure consistenttactic to all activities accomplished. There is no anycompany that can afford several ways to undertake activities, nor can it afford extraopenings to encouragedisaster from lack of documented and well-definedoperational process. Production process Production process is focused with transmuting a variety of inputs into yields that are essentialto the market. All production process encompasses a sequence of networks in a production chain. In every stage, value is added during production process. Procurement process This is a process thataida firm in acquiring goods and services from peripheral dealers. Having looked at the meaning of operation process, market process, production and procurement process, it is very clear that all this processes are very vital in the operation of any organization. Therefore, Turkish airline can Synchronize and integrate these processes in the following ways: In order for Turkish airline to Synchronize and integrate these processes at the correct time at the right place at the right quintets, so they can shrink the cost and upsurge customer services fulfillment simultaneously, they need to do matching. Matching is the process of collecting and relating all the similar activities in the organization. Through matching process, Turkish airline will be able to synchronize and integrate all the company processes. This will be done by putting all the related activities in every process then relate them. This will ensure employing a certain group of workers to work in those clustered processes from different departments (processes) in the company. This will help Turkish airline save a lot of money due to the reduction in the number of employees. This is because; one employee can work in different department within the same airline. Apart from synchronizing Market, operation, production and procurement processes, integration process would be very important integration in order to reduce operation cost and increase customer satisfaction. Integration, in Turkish airline, can be done by investigating affiliations across a corporate compendium in order to formtaxonomiesand unifyprocesses into a standardized system. To do this, it will include both merging and matching methods. Through integration, processes within the airline which are closely related will be unified thus forming one standardized system. This will help in saving time in saving customers, lower operation cost due to reduction in the number of employees and also be able to increase customers satisfaction due to the existence of a standardized system of operation. Outsource the Catering Since Turkish airline is a very big airline, it must outsource some services like catering because this is the service that requires a lot of working strategies. Turkish airline should therefore identify large company of caterers who have their in-house experts for nearly everything that is required to done in catering department in Turkish airline. It would be a way forward for Turkish airline to hire outside experts for special catering services that are required in order to cater for various kinds of the customers travelling in Turkish airline. By employing this catering company, the Turkish airline should divide the kind of miles to be offered to the travellers travelling in Turkish airline. This will ensure that customer only chose their preferred meal from the available set of food items and drinks available for every type of schedule. This will ensure that there is catering services for breakfast, lunch and dinner which will depend on the schedule of the airline. In doing this, Turkish airline will be able to save a lot of money by ensuring only food items prepared are suitable a certain type of travel schedule. It will also avoid inconvenience of the customers ordering something which is not available. Also, this will increase customer satisfactions since customers will be choosing items available in the menu for a certain schedule of the airline. This will help market Turkish airline since customers will be satisfied by the services being offered by the Turkish airline. This will therefore increase the number of returning customers and also help Turkish airline attract other new customers through the good thing being said by the old customers of Turkish airline. Supply Chain Management Supply chain management means the oversight of information, finances and materials as they shift in a procedure from the supplier to the manufacturer to the wholesaler to the retailer and to consumers. Supply chain management engrosses integrating and coordinating the flows both among and within companies. It is believed that, the final goal of all efficient supply chain management systems is to lower inventory, with the presumption that, all products are readily available when they are needed. Supply chain management surge can be subdivided into three key flows: The information flow The product flow The finances flow Products flow involves the faction of goods from the supplier to the customer, and all customers returns or service necessities. The data flow involves conveying orders as well as updating the delivery status. The financial flows consist of payment schedules, title and consignment ownership and credit terms provisions. There exist two key types of supply chain management software: execution applications and planning applications. Planning applications make use of advanced algorithms to examine the most appropriate means to fill orders. Execution applications pursue the physical characteristics of goods, materials management, and the financial information engrossing entire parties. Some supply chain management applications are focused on open information models, which support the distribution of information both outside and inside the enterprise. This is known as the comprehensive enterprise, and may include main suppliers, end customers and manufacturers of a particular company. This shared information might reside in variedÂÂ  data warehouses or database systems at several different companies and sites. By giving out the data upstream with the companys suppliers and the downstream with the companys clients, supply chain management applications have the capability to upgrade the market-to-time products, allow all parties and reduce costs in the supply chain management to better manage the current resources as well as plan for future necessities. Supply Chain In early 2008 AMR Research (2008b) reported that, firms in the Supply Chain Top 25 reported an average total stock market return for 2007 of 17.89%, while the Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJIA) had average returns of 6.43% and the SP 500 index had average returns of 3.53% during the same period (Hauser 2010, 446-462). At the time the Supply Chain Top 25 included firms in the computer, electronics, automotive, retail, beverage, health care, apparel, and pharmaceutical industries, indicating a widespread recognition of the value of effective supply chain practices. Later in 2008, when the stock markets were down substantially, the Supply Chain Top 25 was down significantly less than the DJIA and SP 500 indices (Hambrick 2009, 193-206). But it is not all good news for firms participating in supply chains. The downside of ineffective supply chain practices can have a substantial negative effect on firm performance as well. In a study of supply chain glitches, Holbrook (2007) found that when publically traded firms experienced supply chain disruptions, the average abnormal financial returns to firms over the subsequent two year period was close to -40%, and the equity risk of the firms increased at the same time. But supply chain problems are not limited to supply disruptions. Being introduced the design for the new 787 Dreamliner several years ago, but has had numerous production problems with supply availability, collaborative design and development challenges, and problems developing new materials for production (Holbrook 2007, 21-71). In a different industry, Ericsson experienced a supplier problem when a small fire eliminated supply of a critical cell phone chip, and the firm never recovered (Hauser 2010, 446-462). There are many examples of how firms have suffered from ineffective management of supply chains, but regardless of the specific causes firms recognize that mere participation in competitive supply chains does not mean the firm will gain potential benefits. These issues present a conundrum: why do some firms gain significant advantage for supply chains, while others do not and may even underperform relative to their competition? Why is this important? Because planning and implementing effective supply chain practices requires managers to make decisions today that affect how well firms will perform in the future, and the costs of poor decisions today have dramatic effects on future firm performance (Harland 2003, 51-62). Supply chain analysis Why do some firms achieve success with their supply chain practices while others underperform to their potential? One potential answer to this puzzle lies in understanding the difference between the breadth of an overall supply chain versus the effective span of control or influence that a firm has on its particular supply chain, and how the span of influence can be used to competitive advantage. For example, Toyota and Wal-Mart have worked to extend their span of control in supply chains beyond their immediate suppliers while working to implement strategic information systems that provide increased visibility of information in their supply chains to help improve flow of product, reduce inventories, and reduce overall supply chain costs (Hambrick 2009, 193-206). This increased visibility also provides early warning of problems that may be developing in the supply chain, providing additional reaction time that may mean the difference between a supply disruption and effective performance. The value of increased visibility has strategic benefits to firms. Some firms, particularly large firms that have the power of high purchase volumes to induce suppliers to participate in supply chain initiatives may do very well in return. But there are limits on span of control in multi-firm relationships and many firms do not achieve the ability to increase their span of control and leverage in supply chains (Habib 2007, 589-606). If a firm has a low-cost strategy, then the firm should optimize and coordinate the supply chain by having frequent and timely deliveries from suppliers to reduce the required level of inventory and achieve low cost. There are two types of generic strategies to achieve a competitive advantage: low-cost and differentiation strategies. A low-cost strategy enables a firm to design and produce a product more efficiently than its competitors. A differentiation strategy allows a firm to offer a variety of products to the customer with reliability and responsive services (Gutman 2002, 60-72). Functional products which are considered to have stable and predictable demand require an efficient process (efficient chains) to supply that product. On the other hand, innovative products which are considered to have unpredictable demand require a responsive supply chain. This match between product type and supply chain strategy will result in a better profit margin for the organization. An efficient supply chain strategy aims at cutting cost and eliminating non-value activities (Gordon 2007, 396-415). A responsive supply chain strategy tends to focus on being flexible and responsive to changes in customers demand. An agile supply chain strategy combines both risk-hedging and responsive supply chain strategies. In other words, it aims at being flexible and responsive to customers while pooling and sharing resources among suppliers (Glazer 2006, 1-19). Effective Supply Chain Span of Control What happens when a firms effective span of control in a supply chain is less that the span of the total supply chain? If the firm cannot see problems that occur beyond its supply chain span of control, the unforeseen problems can affect business continuity and supply chain performance with no prior warning. The Ericsson example above, where the customer was not aware of the extensive contamination of the chip production plant that resulted in months of delays, is but one example. And increased visibility is not a panacea. In 2003, When Apple was planning to launch its G5 computer using chips from IBM, the launch was delayed by a multi-state power outage because Apple was using a single source strategy in its supply chain for the CPU processor chip (Ghoshal 2007, 425-440). These issues of visibility, control, and coordination all fall under the realm of SCD. They require investments in developing specific capabilities that substitute for the internal control that would be available through vertical integration (Ganesan 2007, 1-19). This observation suggests that superior SCD provides another potential answer to the puzzle of why some firms performance better than others through the use of effective supply chain strategies. This leads to a discussion of SCD (Galunic 2010, 215-255). Capabilities As previously noted, when firms develop specific capabilities in supply chains these capabilities influence how the supply chain performs. Thus, once a capability is implemented it changes the behavior of the system. When the underlying behavior of a organizational system is systematically influenced, it is said to have properties that are identified with that behavior (Christopher 2007, 1-10). For example, firms develop capabilities to improve responsiveness in uncertain environments, and once successfully implemented these firms are said to have agility. Agility is one of many properties that have been identified in supply chains, as noted below. To build on this introduction to properties the discussion turns to defining the term properties and then examples of properties are provided within a supply chain context (Child 2005, 1-22). Supply Chain Relationship Structure Costs and benefits In choosing an SCRS, for every benefit there is a corresponding cost. With a modular SCRS, the expected increase in flexibility and responsiveness comes at the cost of more relationships to manage, more suppliers to qualify, more inter-firm interface standards to define/gain acceptance, and a spread of purchase volume commitments to more than one company, resulting in lower purchase volume leverage. For a firm employing a modular SCRS, the benefits of lower switching costs and responsiveness are traded-off by lower visibility to identify potential problems and the loss of lower total system costs that are available through more extensive coordination and communication practices (Holbrook 2007, 21-71). For an integrated SCRS, the advantages of higher visibility, improved coordination, lower inventories, and lower system cost come at the expense of investments in more integrated information systems, more human capital to maintain closer relationships, and lower flexibility and higher switching costs during dynamic competitive environments. When relationships are switched in an integrated SCRS, the new relationships and integrated processes have to be integrated over time, increasing investments in new suppliers and increasing human capital to aid in the transition. In addition, if a firm over-invests in a relationship, it negates some of the performance benefits, particularly financial performance (Harland 2003, 51-62). If a firm under-invests, it loses some of the potential benefits. Thus there are trade-offs that firms must consider between increased coordination and investment, and between control versus flexibility during environmental change. These SCRS-related costs and benefits need to be placed in the context of a firms desired strategic outcome.

The Health Benefits of Exercise Programming Essay -- Strength Training

Investigate the contemporary body of knowledge that underpins the current recommendations for exercise programming in the pursuit of improved health. Pate et al. (1995) stated that physical activity is needed for health promotion and disease prevention. They also stated that every adult should do at least 30 minutes of moderate intensity exercise everyday if possible. Moderate intensity exercising includes activities such as brisk walking and cycling as stated by the Department of Health (2011). They also state that regular physical activity will improve a person’s mental health as it will increase self esteem and reduce symptoms of depression and anxiety. Physical wellbeing is also enhanced by an increase in physical activity. The World Health Organisation (WHO) (2002) found that in developed countries 20% of heart disease and 10% of strokes are due to physical inactivity. Furthermore a lack of physical activity is found to cause 3% of all diseases. Kerr (2012) states that there are 3 main types of exercise which are aerobic, strength/resistance training and flexibility exercises. Aerobic exercises will help keep the heart, lungs and muscles healthy, and when paired with a healthy diet will aid in weight loss. Appropriate resistance training will help to improve strength, posture and balance as well as causing the participant’s body to look more toned. Also the build up of muscle will aid with weight loss as at rest muscle burns more calories than inactive tissue. These exercises should be done two or three times a week. Flexibility exercises are important because if a muscle isn’t stretched then overtime it will shorten and become less elastic. Therefore joint mobility will decrease and the likelihood of injuries to muscl... ...ll, B, Willett, W, Manson, J, Leitzmann, M, Stampfer, M, Hunter, D, & Colditz, G (2001), 'Physical activity and mortality: a prospective study among women', American Journal Of Public Health, 91, 4, pp. 578-583 The American College of Sports Medicine. (2014) ACSM Issues New Recommendations on Quantity and Quality of Exercise. [Online] Available from: http://acsm.org/about-acsm/media-room/news-releases/2011/08/01/acsm-issues-new-recommendations-on-quantity-and-quality-of-exercise [accessed 19 May 2014] World Health Organisation. (2002) The world health report 2002 - Reducing Risks, Promoting Healthy Life. [Online] Available from: http://www.who.int/whr/2002/en/whr02_en.pdf?ua=1 [accessed 19 May 2014] Yung,, L.M., Laher, I., Chen, Z.Y., Huang, Y. and Leaung , F.P. (2009) Exercise, Vascular Wall and Cardiovascular Diseases. Sports Medicine. Vol. 39, No. 1: 45-63

Irony in Nadine Gordimer’s “Once upon a time” Essay

Once Upon a Social Issue Fairy tales have always been told to us as children; whether to comfort or entertain us, they always seem to be a part of everyone’s childhood. â€Å"Once Upon A Time†, the title is a characteristic of a fairy tale, but she leads the story to an ending that is anything other than â€Å"happily ever after† (Gordimer 12). Although Nadine Gordimer’s title is typical in a fairy tale in the story â€Å"One upon a time†, the story she writes is anything but typical. Instead of dealing with characteristics and synonymous with fairy tales, the author uses irony to reflect the idea of humans leading into their destruction. Because the story about the happy family is as far away from a fairy story as it can be. She uses sentences as â€Å"living happily ever after†, the title â€Å"Once upon a Time† and words like +witch† (Gordimer 12) to imitate a story for children, but this is not a fairytale. This is a story ab out the social injustices between people and the injustices in which we see in the world. Gordimer is not trying to write a story for children. She uses the fairytale-like language to clarify the irony in the story. One of the more interesting examples of irony I found in the text was where the author wrote â€Å"Consult DRAGON’S TEETH The People For Total Security†¦ One evening, the mother read the little boy to sleep with a fairy story from the book the wise old witch had given him at Christmas. Next day he pretended to be the Prince who braves the terrible thicket of thorns to enter the palace and kiss the Sleeping Beauty back to life: He dragged a ladder to the wall, the shining coiled tunnel was just wide enough for his little body to creep in, and with the first fixing of its razor teeth in his knees and hands and head he screamed and struggled deeper into its tangle. The trusted housemaid and the itinerant gardener, whose ‘day’ it was, came running, the first to see and to scream with him, and the itinerant gardener tore his hands trying t o get at the little boy†. When it says â€Å"DRAGON’S TEETH† it reminds me of a fairy tale. Usually in fairy tales  The story involves an upper class woman, generally a princess or similar high-ranking nobility, saved from a dragon, either a literal dragon or a similar danger, by the hero (in this case the little boy pretending to be a prince). After the mom reads the boy a story of saving the princess through thorns, which in this case is the barb wire from the company â€Å"DRAGON’S TEETH† (Gordimer 14) the boy kisses the girl and brings her back to life. This fairy tale is ironic because usually fairy tales end happily while this fairy tale is a more realistic fairy tale. The story’s first paragraph starts with family existing by a man, his wife, their grandmother, and their son. They live in the suburb, in a city, in South Africa under the apartheid system. The separation between blacks and whites are huge, and every family in the suburb is secured in any possible way. No one from the outside is allowed in. Even though the husband keeps telling his wife that â€Å"these people were not allowed into the suburb except as reliable housemaids and gardeners, so there was nothing to fear† (Gordimer 12), the family keeps developing their safety equipment, in case something could happened. The irony is that the family has no idea what is happening outside the fence. They call them â€Å"these people† (Gordimer 12) as if they don’t even know that they look like. Gradually they add more protection to their home as their fear grows. Ironically, the protection they install boomerangs back and kills their son. The story’s second paragraph also portrays a perfect family taking all the normal precautions to keep them safe. â€Å"It was not possible to insure the house†¦against riot damage†(Gordimer 12) tells us that they were not able to protect themselves from everything and the repetition of â€Å"YOU HAVE BEEN WARNED† (Gordimer 12) tells readers that this story is in fact warning them that with each move they make they build their own prison and bring on their own destruction. As well as the sign â€Å"YOU HAVE BEEN WARNED† wasn’t just ironic but also has significance of foreshadowing by making an effort to continue to make their house safe, they brought it upon themselves that such misfortune should happen. There is also a mention of an intruder on the sign. By the end of the story, we realize this intruder does not have to be a person at all but could be an internal intruder in our lives. In the case of this family, the intruder is their inability to pay attention to the important things in life and just barricade themselves from others. Irony adds to this final effect in that everything the parents do to protect their  home becomes useless. The gate speaker is used by the boy as a walkie-talkie. The alarm is set off but no one cares. The high wall is mocked by the cat jumping over it. The ultimate destruction of this is their own son’s death. In the story, â€Å"happily ever after† (Gordimer 12) is constantly repeated which is ironic because they live in an injust society. This family is forced to keep to their own house and be scared for their lives, yet they are living â€Å"happily ever after†. The fact that the housemaid is the loyal one in the story is also ironic because stereotypically house workers are deceitful and try to steal their employer’s belongings as well as the housemaid is weeping and crying while the parents show no emotion. The biggest irony of â€Å"Once Upon a Time† is the child getting hurt by what was to protect him, especially since bed time stories and fairy tales are supposed to end happily. In conclusion, the most important element in the story is irony, which is used to reflect the idea of humans leading into their own destruction. And although this story seems to be a fairy tale, Gordimer makes it so that the irony leads to a completely different perspective on the story. Keeping in mind all these precautions/things the characters thought they would die without, bring on terrible misfortune, where the theme sends a very powerful message as well. In reality, many people are obsessed with protection and security. While they forget that being too paranoid can result in danger. Works Cited Gordimer, Nadine. â€Å"Once upon a time.† Pre-AP English 9 Supplementary Readings: Prejudice and Social Inequity. Milton: n.p., 2012. 12-14. Print.